|
FEMALE MARTYRS
CHAPTER TWO
MARTYRDOM:
THE EARLY YEARS
Religious
persecution resulted in the creation of martyrs, this we know.
What we are not so sure about is the underlying attitude of
Roman authority (Emperors and officials) to the new sect. It
could be that Christians per se were seen as a group of
subversives, miscreants even, given to strange and unlawful
practices, so that the very fact of being a member was
tantamount to breaking the law. Christian practice was
undoubtedly viewed as at least deviant. Did they not make
strange and illegal sacrifices to a King who threatened to
topple the Empire`s ruler? Did they not have mysterious
rituals surrounding the birth of their children and even it
seemed indulged in a type of cannibalism? These and other
stories accreted round the adherents of the new religion, so
that Christianity itself was regarded as a criminal
organization. Being a member made a person automatically an
outlaw. There was a degree of paranoia exhibited by the Roman
hierarchy towards this sect. This is what we may call the
“secular” attitude i.e. concern with law and order on the part
of Roman rule, but we know more of the religious attitude,
which had to do with the acknowledgement of the Emperor as a
divine type of ruler and willingness to worship what Christian
believers saw as false gods. At all costs these people had to
be made to apostatize and deny their mistaken faith. Hence the
resort to torture and , if that did not work, to killing. Some
Rulers were less cruel than others, but all wanted to keep
their citizens happy, so the killing of Christians in the
Arena was resorted to for this purpose…panes et circenses,
sums it up.
The first
martyrdoms occurred in the reign of Nero, who was the first
to blame Christians for calamities. The burning of Rome in
64AD was thought to be Nero`s doing but to divert suspicion
from himself he accused the Christians. The first martyr was
Stephen in AD34, stoned to death by his Jewish countrymen,
before Nero donned the royal purple, but worth mentioning here
as it helps to put in context the tragic martyr era. After
the accession of Nero persecution and murder for the faith
began in earnest. Sexual violence and prurience played no
small part in theses persecutions , especially of females .It
must be realised at this juncture that the numbers of
Christian believers were by no means inconsiderable and that
the number was increasing all the time despite horrific
cruelty. In addition to this consideration was the perception
that barbaric hordes were not too far away, and that belief
in, and worship, of the many official gods was no longer
universal. An element of uncertainty was creeping into the
Roman psyche . Consequently, persecution of Christians began
in full swing and new punitive edicts were promulgated against
them by successive Emperors. That these edicts were obeyed to
the letter is clear from Eusebius, who gave details of the
tortures and executions, as well as of the general horrific
picture. Speaking of different parts of the far flung Roman
empire, he speaks of there being ,”Everywhere numberless
people were imprisoned, jails which had been built for
murderers and violators of tombs were now so full of bishops ,
priests, deacons, lectors and exorcists that there was no
longer room for common criminals. Nobody can say how many
suffered martyrdom in the various provinces. The persecution
was especially severe in Africa, Mauretania and in Egypt. From
this last place some moved on to other cities and became
famous in their death” (Ecclesiastical History, vol. 8; 6:
9-10) Apart from Eusebius, the one who provides most
information on the persecutions is the historian, Lactantius,
writing in the late 3rd century and early 4th
century, whose principal work is concerned with the beliefs
and tenets of Christianity. However , for our purposes
interest chiefly lies in his “De mortibus persectorum” (circa
314) , concerning the deaths of the persecuted.
Of the large
number of martyrs under Roman rule in these days, many were
female. Like their male counterparts, they resisted the
judges, but often in their own way, many if not all, having
taken a vow of virginity. As far as can be judged, female
martyrs exhibited a bolder attitude to their interrogators,
often seeming to be deliberately provoking. One characteristic
stands out in the accounts, and this is their determination to
preserve their virginity at all costs. There are many
narratives concerning the examination, and inevitable death of
female victims, several of whom were noble and rich. Typical
of them is the story of Crispina, (about whom more later) who
came to the attention of the authorities because she flatly
refused to offer incense to the gods. Brought before the
judge, she was asked if she knew what was required by the
relevant edict. “I do not know this edict.” was her reply..
The edict was explained to her, especially the need to
sacrifice. Crispina replied: “I shall never offer this
sacrifice. I offer sacrifice to one God only and his Son our
Lord Jesus Christ who was born and suffered”. She was
ultimately sentenced to death by beheading. (This occurred in
the reign of Diocletian.) That age did not matter when
accusing (as Trajan had decreed) is illustrated in the “case”
of Pelagia, a fifteen year old girl, who was confronted in her
own home by soldiers sent by authority. She pretended to
welcome the soldiers but knowing what would probably befall
her before she reached the place of interrogation , she asked
if she could put on her best clothes to face the magistrates.
She went to the top of the house, said a prayer to God and
then threw herself down to her death. Even younger was Agnes
aged about twelve, who it seems was defending her virginity,
when she was probably beheaded. This account is attributed to
Ambrose, (circa 340 -400) one of the four great “Doctors” of
the Church (Augustine, Jerome, and Gregory the Great, the
other three) and she is mentioned in the “Peristephanon” of
Prudentius.
A persecution
in Antioch, Syria, about this time (first few centuries BC)
illustrates the “difficulties” in the age of persecution
facing Christian families. Domnina and her two daughters lived
a strict religious Christian life – not easy in pagan Antioch.
They decided to leave their home town but the leaving had
come to the attention of pagan officialdom. The husband was
tortured to reveal his family`s exact whereabouts, On the
journey back by boat, the three women flung themselves into
the water, preferring drowning to inevitable torture and
probably above all, loss of chastity. The story of Julitta is
of a widowed rich woman who fell victim to fraud originated by
feelings of jealousy among some of her fellow citizens.. A
vendetta ensued between Julitta and her influential and
powerful adversary, so much so that when the matter came to
court, he claimed that Julitta had no rights as a Christian
and should make a display of worshipping the gods. Of course
Julitta refused , answering “I am the handmaid of Christ”.
Given the chice of sacrificing or being burnt at the stake,
she chose the latter. Theodosia`s story shows how much
Christians thought about the power of a martyred person to
intercede after death. She had gone to Caesarea to visit
Christian friends, who may have been potential martyrs She was
apprehended and arrested as a revolutionary. On this flimsy
evidence she was tortured and finally drowned. She was
eighteen years of age. These are but some of the many female
martyrs who were cruelly put to death throughout the Roman
Empire in the early centuries AD The story of Afra (late
third century) is worth mentioning in some detail to
illustrate the procedures of an interrogation. . It seems Afra
was a particularly interesting “subject” (for compilers of
martyrologies.) as she had been by repute a prostitute in
early life. She was however by the time of her arrest a
practising Christian. She wished to give the money she had
gained to Christian causes but the money so gained was not
acceptable to Christians. When arrested , she was invited to
offer sacrifice, and told the alternative was a painful death.
Afra replied that she had sinned enough already and no wish to
add to her sins. Once more she was told to sacrifice by her
judge, Her reply: “to Christ alone I sacrifice; to him alone
every day I confess my sins”. The judge: “You are a
prostitute. Sacrifice therefore as you cannot be of the
Christian God.”
“The gospels
show that a prostitute bathed his feet with tears and had her
sins forgiven her.”
“Sacrifice,
for then you will be as acceptable to your clients as before.”
“You have lost
any chance of Christ thinking you worthy of him. You have no
proof for saying that he is your God.”
“I do not
deserve to be called a Christian , as you say, but the mercy
of God has allowed me the honour of his name.”
“How do you
know he has shown you mercy?”
“I know I have
not been cast off by God since I am being allowed to confess
his glorious name.”
“Nonsense!
Better to sacrifice to the gods through whom you will receive
safety
“My safety is
Christ who promised the happiness of paradise .”
“Sacrifice or
else in the presence of your lovers I will order you to be
beaten.”
“I am not
ashamed of anything except my sins.”
“ I have
demeaned myself by arguing with you. If you will not sacrifice
you will be executed.”
“This is what
I desire if I am worthy so that I may come to eternal rest.”
“Sacrifice or
I will have you tortured and then burnt alive.”
“The body with
which I have sinned will accept the torments but I will not
stain my soul with the sacrifices of the devil.”
The judge then
passed sentence: burning alive.
Afra was lead
outside, stripped as was the custom especially with female
victims, and tied to a stake. While the fire raged she was
heard praying, thanking Jesus Christ and offering herself as a
sacrifice.
Some accounts
of martyrdom are, it must be said, the stuff of legend, but
who is to know the truth.? The story of St Rhipsime (as
she later became) is a case in point, but worthy of relation.
She was of noble birth and a consecrated virgin, one of a
like-minded community. A portrait of the beautiful Rhipsime
came to the notice of Emperor Diocletian who determined to
marry her. When she was told of the “honour” she was horrified
and decided to flee the country, settling with some of
colleagues in the distant country of Armenia. Her great beauty
however could not be hidden and reports reached Diocletian.
The Emperor send a deputation to bring her back but nearing
her destination apparently Rhipsime prayed for deliverance. At
once a great thunderstorm broke out scattering the horses and
their riders. She escaped, but only temporarily, and was by
force dragged into the Emperor`s presence. Overcome by her
beauty he tried at once to embrace her but she resisted.
Outraged , the Ruler ordered her to be imprisoned but she
managed to escape to rejoin her companions. Discovering next
day her escape, Diocletian instituted a massive search; she
was brought back and sentenced to death. She, along with her
fellow Christians, was roasted alive. This happened, so we
believe, about 310 AD. Similar is the story about the death
of Anastasia, which occurred circa the same date. Whether the
narrative tells the genuine story depends upon individual
credulity (or belief). Anastasia was also of patrician
lineage, a Roman, and true to her Christian faith, brought
succour to her fellow Christians in prison. She was in time
arrested for her “illegal” activities and brought before the
authorities, A slow death of hunger and thirst was ordained
for her: she was put in a boat and abandoned at sea, but as we
are told, the spirit of a martyred female (saint) appeared and
guided the boat to land. There was to be no happy ending as
Anastasia was apprehended and put to death by burning, staked
to the ground, with her arms and legs outstretched.
It has earlier
been pointed out that the “Acts of the Christian Martyrs” is
one of our most graphic (and trustworthy) sources for
information about the early martyrs. Religious writers, who
wrote in Latin, of the first centuries after the death of
Christ may have not always been scrupulous about historical
truth and accuracy, but they are largely what we must go on
and there have been/are some great collections from about the
seventeenth century onwards. One of the best translations (and
collations of the Acts) is that of Herbert Musurillo (1972)
and much that follows is taken from his work. The “story” of
the martyrs, Perpetua and Felicitas (circa 200 AD) is worthy
of citation, as it is reputed to be in their own words,
obviously before meeting their deaths. Perpetua, aged about
twenty-two, was a newly married Christian woman with a baby.
She along with her Christian slave, Felicitas, were arrested.
We have mentioned Perpetua earlier, but in her account of her
arrest and subsequent events, she gives much interesting
detail. After her “hearing” , in which she boldly stated that
she was a Christian she was “condemned to the beasts,” as she
puts it She recounts strange dreams and visions she had during
this time,including fighting in the arena, and being
transported by angels. She ends her narration with the words,
“And then I woke up happy”. Her co-sufferer, Felicitas,
suffered the same tribulations. Now the tale of Perpetua and
Felicitas is taken up by information in the Acts. It seems
the pair acted defiantly in the arena, so much so that they
were scoured before the enraged people. Then they were placed
before bears and bulls, not surprisingly to be clawed and
tossed. They did not meet the deaths by attacks from wild
beasts but eventually by beheading. A passage in the Acts,
concludes this account of the martyrdom of the two women:
“Most valiant and blessed martyrs. Truly are you called and
chosen for the glory of Christ Jesus our Lord! And any man who
exalts,honours and worships his glory should read for the
consolation of the Church these new deeds of heroism which are
no less significant than the tales of old”.
Connecting
narrative is by an anonymous writer.
Potamiaena was
a Christian woman of the early third century,who was arrested,
and charged with the crime of being a practising Christian. It
is possible to surmise that as she had the repute of being a
vigorous defender of her purity and chastity, her judge
threatened to hand her over to the lust of his gladiators. She
was of course condemned when she refused to recant. In the
words of Eusebius, “After she had said this, she nobly endured
the end: boiling pitch was slowly poured drop by drop over
different parts of her body from her toes to the top of her
head. Such was the struggle that this magnificent young woman
endured”. (Ecclesiatical History, vi, 5). Apparently she had
been singled out as a follower of Origen, followers who also
paid the ultimate price. The account by Eusebius of
Potamiaena`s death is it seems the first time mention was made
of killing by boiling pitch. (The inventiveness of the
persecutors knew no bounds!)
It is
appropriate here to look at the martyrdom of the Christian
women Agape, Irene, Chione (along with four companions) in
about 304 AD. Diocletian had just issued his edicts banning
the reading of religious “sacred” books and ordering sacrifice
under pain of death. (This summary account is taken from
Musurillo`s “Introduction” to his book, already mentioned,
THE ACTS OF THE CHRISTIAN MARTYRS.) It appears the three
young women had fled to a mountainous region where they formed
a consecrated group. Unfortunately they were tracked down and
arrested. Subsequently there were three “hearings”, or
interrogations. After the first, Agape and Chione, being the
eldest, are condemned to burning; the others remanded because
of their youth. At the second hearing, Irene is faced with a
prosecutor who refers to the two executed women as her
sisters, and he tries to elicit information about the flight
to the mountains. He also attempts to weaken her courage by
sending her to a brothel, but is unsuccessful in his purpose.
After the third hearing, Irene is burnt in the same place as
her “sisters” .( The details are taken from an original Greek
manuscript translated into Latin which in turn Musurillo
translated.)
We promised
more information about St. Crispina, her trial and death. As
she is one of the most “famous” of the early female martyrs,
detail, I believe, is warranted..Having been brought before
the proconsul Anullinus, Crispina said she was not aware of
what was required.
“That you
should offer sacrifice to all our gods for the welfare of the
Emperors, in accordance with the law.”
Crispina
replied: “I have never sacrificed and I shall not do so save
to the one true God.”
“You are a
stubborn and insolent woman and you will soon begin to feel
the force of our laws against your will.”
“Whatever
happens I shall be glad to suffer it on behalf of the faith
which I hold firm.”
“Worship the
sacred gods!”
“I worship
daily but I worship the living and true God who is my Lord.”
“I will have
you beheaded if you do not obey the edicts of our lords the
Emperors.”
“So our gods
are not acceptable to you?"
“I do not fear anything you say;
that is nothing. But if I deliberately choose to commit a
sacrilege the God in heaven will destroy me.”
“Revere the religion of Rome
which is observed by our lords the unconquerable Caesars.”
“I shall not defile my soul with
idols.”
Anullius spoke
then to the court notary, saying, “Let her hair be cut off and
her head shaved,” in an attempt to humiliate her.
“Do you wish
to die in agony? If you continue to despise our gods, I shall
order your head to be cut off.”
“I should
thank my God if I obtained this. I should be very happy to
lose my head for the sake of God.”
“Why should we
suffer this impious Christian woman further? Read back the
minutes.”
“Seeing that
Crispina has persisted in infamous superstition and refuses to
offer sacrifice to our gods in accordance with the heavenly
decrees of the Augustan law I have ordered her to be executed
with the sword.”
Making the
sign of the cross, Crispina put out her neck to be beheaded,
for the name of the Lord Jesus Christ.
HISTORICITY
Much helpful
material on the “historicity” or reliablity of the reports of
cases of martyrdom is to be found in the article “Acts of the
Martyrs” in the Catholic Encyclopedia (now on CD ROM). The
article attempts to sift the wheat from the chaff, and
mentions the comparative reliability of the accounts by some
Fathers of the Church, notably, St. Basil, Chrysostom,
Augustine, Peter Chrysologus and John Damascene. This of
course has implications for our study in that I have attempted
to mention only those (as far as one can tell) whose stories
are to all intents and purposes genuine accounts in the eyes
of modern scholarship. An example of doubtful “provenance” is
the story of St. Bibiana, According to legend (for so we must
call it) she was persecuted under Julian the Apostate ,Roman
Emperor, (361-366) , tortured and died as a result of her
sufferings. Her body was entombed in a basilica in Rome. – so
we are given to believe.
At this
juncture it is opportune to look at Tertullian`s “Address to
the Martyrs”, possibly his earliest work, circa 197AD. The
address is lengthy so to give a flavour I have quoted passim
from it.
AN ADDRESS
“Amongst the
aliments of the flesh which both Our Lady Mother the Church
from her own bosom, and the brethren singly from their private
store, supply to you in your prison , blessed martyrs elect,
accept somewhat from me likewise which may serve to nourish
your spirit also. …First therefore, blessed men, grieve not
the Holy Spirit who hath entered with you into the prison; for
if He had not now entered with you , neither would ye have
been there this day. ....Wherefore, blessed men, consider that
ye have been translated from a prison to a place it may be
of safe keeping. It hath darkness but ye yourselves are
light.. …Thou seest there no strange gods : thou comest not
upon their images. Where thy heart is , there will be thy
treasure also. Let therefore our heart be there, where we
would have our treasure. ….Be it now ,blessed men, that a
prison is grievous even to Christians. We were called to the
warfare of the living God….Ye are about to undergo a good
fight , wherein the President is the living God….voluntary
sought after [martyrdom] for the sake of fame and glory; not
by men only, but by women that ye also O blessed women may
match you own sex.” (Here Tertullian gives a list of famous
women from antiquity who died violently.) He continues. “A
woman hath of her own will eagerly encountered beasts….For it
will be accounted a grace and a glory of an higher character
in truth, if the soul rather than the body yield itself to
scourgings. I pass over for the moment , the motive of
glory….if we shall be afraid to suffer for the Truth`s sake
unto salvation those things which others hath made a display
of suffering for vanity`s sake…..how often have wild beasts
….devoured men. For this let even the present times be a proof
unto us how many persons and of what quality meet with deaths
not to be expected either from their birth or their rank, or
their persons.or their age, for the sake of man, either from
himself if they act against him, or from his enemies, if they
take part with him.”
This Address
is clearly written in the “earlyish” days of persecution, as
the whole tenor of the article reflects the days of
potential martyrdom . It is interesting to see
Tertullian`s references to females.
Sexual climate
and tortures
In this
regard, we can have a look at the prevailing sexual climate of
early Rome, in the time when most martyrdoms took place. Let`s
face it: pornography was well accepted by high and low. There
were, for example some female gladiators who chose to fight
with bare breasts for the delectation of the crowds. Generally
the execution of female criminals was a very public affair.
Appearing naked or in some very diaphanous covering was the
norm . Often too, naked or seni-naked women were exposed to
bulls or to “specially trained” dogs or goats, emphasising her
sexual dishonour (especially if she was an adulteress.
Sometimes the young women were exposed to a cow, or heifer, as
a symbol of degradation: the inference to be gained was that
these victims were inferior, not worthy of being pitted
against a bull. Sometimes the chosen animal was an ass, but
with the intention to forcibly mate the woman with the beast.
Often the women were not put to death but were threatened (or
sentenced) to rape or placed in a brothel. Thus the threat of
violation and sexual sadism were often resorted to by
so-called judges, rather than a death sentence. Tortures of a
basically sexual nature were resorted to in many cases.
Spreadeagling, suspending a victim by one foot or leg,
stripping and exposing to public gaze, cutting off breasts,
were some devices. There is no doubt that females suffered as
much torture and death as men – it is just that throughout
history, female martyrdom has .never received the same
publicity as male. (Why, we will try to answer in the next
chapter.)
St. Augustine
wrote that “The crown is more glorious in the case where the
sex is weaker”( “The City of God”). Also there was the
prevalent attitude (among males) directed to women of misogyny
as well as inferiority of a sexual nature. The courage
displayed by female martyrs was usually downplayed (if not
actually marginalised) As Sarah Barnett says in her article
“Death and the Maidens” , “Through their conduct, women
martyrs transcended not only their gender but the limited
expectation of it”. A paragraph in her article is succinct and
telling:
“In their
deaths and demeanour women martyrs demonstrated that virtus
[strength] was not gender specific. In accepting threats of
rape, torture, enforced prostitution or even just straight
death, women martyrs, like their male counterparts showed
astonishing strength of character and resolve. They were
utterly convinced of their faith”.
FEMALE
SUBORDINATION
However it is
interesting to note that in Eusebius`s “Ecclesiastical
History” only fifteen women are mentioned in his list of 120
martyrs. Long after their martyrdoms, accounts of the deaths
of authentic victims, first began appearing in the fourth
century. After the end of the age of martyrdom, (Edict of
Milan, 313 ) the most immediate path to eternal glory was a
form of ascetism: “the rigorous practice of self-denial and
even mortification of the body through disciplines such as
chastity and fasting , which itself led to a kind of symbolic
martyrdom” (Article on “Women and Hagiography “ by Thomas
Head, obtainable on the Web). Stories of apocryphal female
martyrs began to circulate, usually those featuring women who
had been promiscuous in early life but had reformed and
entered into a miraculously ascetic life. Reliable accounts of
women martyrs (i.e. females who had really existed and been
killed) still formed a very small part of the hagiographies of
the day (the Dark Ages and early medieval period). Not only
this but accounts seemed to be concerned with victims from the
upper strata of society, ignoring those from lower echelons.
Head gives an interesting statistic: he says (op.cit.) that
only 18 of the 150 or so people recognised as saints in the
twelfth century were women. However, from the thirteenth
century we can say that women did begin to force themselves on
the attention. Their reputation for piety, coupled with
fortitude at last won through. ( More on this later).
Unfortunately
for compilers of authentic martyrologies, several (if not
many) accounts are to say the least tinged with “inexactitude”
(as Churchill would have said), We have mentioned this before
but to illustrate the point well, it is instructive to look at
the story of Basilissa or Basilla a name well-known in
histories of the saint-martyrs, All we know rather
uncertainly, is that Basilissa suffered death at the height of
the Roman persecutions, from the first to the beginning of the
fourth centuries. Accounts, stories, legends, call them what
you will, appeared several times in different places about
a Basilla or Basilissa, apparently a common name then. The
problem is of course whether there were several martyrs called
by that name, or whether some of them are simply duplicates.
A Divine
Emperor
What made the
crime of Christianity worse in the view of Roman authority was
the belief , (or concept) that the Emperor was divine. Not
performing obesiance to him was therefore a heinous crime, as
we know, punishable by death. He had to be worshipped as a
god. After the death of Augustus in 14AD, the idea of divinity
became prevalent. The Roman historian Tacitus (55-120) gives
the first secular account of Christian women dying for their
faith,.in particular, one Pomponia in about 100 AD. Another
early martyr, Eudicia, was mentioned by Eusebius, whose death
was in about 152. Once again the story goes that she had been
formerly a prostitute who had “seen the light”. It seems that
one night she overheard a monk reciting aloud that part of the
Gospel where Christ judges the world. Stricken with remorse
for her sins she sought to convert to the Christian faith and
was first baptised. She gave away her wealth to the poor and
later became the Superior of a desert community of holy women.
She clearly came to the notice of the Roman authorities, and
was arrested. After the usual mockery of a trial, she was
condemned to death and was beheaded.
In an article
by Marianne Dorman, entitled “Feminine Martyrs”, (posted on
the Web, 2006,) there is a telling paragraph, which tells of
the persecution era: “Those years before 313 witnessed the
death and martyrdom of many virgins who had consecrated
themselves as a bride of Christ rather than be subjected to
marriage. Paul`s teaching on virginity struck a chord with
women very quickly in the early Church. Hence there are many
examples of young women who saw Christ as their spouse and
thus refused betrothals, this often brought them into conflict
with either their fathers or the betrothed….”
St.Cecilia,
the patron saint of music, was one who determined to remain a
virgin although for harmony`s sake she went ahead with the
marriage ceremony. On her wedding night she told her husband
that she had guardian angel who would slay him if he should
“touch her body”.. Valerian (her husband) wished to see the
angel and so Cecilia said to him, “Go find Pope Urban, tell
him about the events and he will baptise you. After this
return and you shall see the angel”. On his return, Valerian
did see the angel as it were talking to his wife, and holding
flowers. Cecilia made her home a refuge for persecuted
Christians, but the two were eventually discovered burying
martyred Christians. Cecilia was brought before the
magistrate; she refused to sacrifice and was sentenced to
death. The story continues that she was struck three times
with the axe which failed to sever her neck completely. She
continued to preach the faith for another three days before
she died. There was a saint and martyr called Cecilia,
but whether all the details of her end are valid or apocryphal
is open to speculation.
Of course
early martyrdoms happened in many countries. There is a
tendency to think that most occurred in Rome/Italy. But this
would be erroneous. In fact there were martyrdoms in all lands
that formed part of the Roman Empire. As we know, the full
fury of persecution ceased after 313 when Constantine was
Emperor. But this is not to say that killing having a
religious motive ended totally; it may have in Rome and its
subjugated lands but persisted in these early centuries in
other European countries after the above date. One of the most
“celebrated” instances was that of (St.) Ursula and her
companions , who were murdered by the Huns, in Cologne, in
about 450. Actually, Germany (as with the witchcraft craze
many centuries later) was quite prominent in this regard.
Their martyrdom took place when Attila, King of the Huns, led
his huge army of barbarians into Italy and all that remained
of the western Roman Empire. Our source here is Gregory of
Tours (538-594) a Frankish historian, related in his “Miraculum”,
a hagiography. He tells of the devastation of Germany, and the
wholesale massacre of prelates, often in front of their own
altars. Ursula and her companions were captured and of course
threatened with death if they refused to sacrifice their
chastity. Ursula spoke to her companions passionately telling
them that death was preferable to the alternative. They all
determined to die rather than submit, and all were beheaded.
The number of Ursula`s followers is not known but was reputed
to be in the thousands: it was clearly very numerous.
Coming up to
later epochs, “no attempt has been made to enumerate either
the number qof martyrs put to death by Hengist the Saxon, or
by the Danes during their other raids into Britain, for the
simple reason that no records exist of the numbers of victims
who suffered for Christ during those dark days”. Succinctly
put by William Fleming in his book, A COMPLETE HISTORY OF THE
BRITISH MARTYRS.
British
martyrs
St. Emerita
was the first British martyr (as far as can be discovered) who
was killed about 330 in Germany. She had left Britain for
France (why is not known) and from there entered Germany. She
was martyred for being a Christian by the pagans of the
district, Helvetia, and was buried there. It would be tedious
I believe to give a list of British female martyrs from these
early centuries, but those we have reliable records about are
mentioned below (up to the first millenium)
Apart from St.
Emerita, in 330, are the following:
St.Ursula (as
above) c.450.
Almeda, 490.
(It can be
taken that all mentioned were virgins and were later
canonised. )
Osith, queen
of East Anglia. 653
Lewina, 687
Ithware, 740
Ebba, (and her
companions), 880
Lefrona, (an
abbess), 1010.
Some words of
Dionysius the Great, Bishop of Alexandria, written in a period
of extreme persecution (under Decius) in about 250 AD, leads
us into the next section. He is writing to a fellow Christian
cleric (Fabius of Antioch):
“The divine
martyrs themselves among us who now are assessors of Christ
and share the fellowship of his kingdom and take part in his
decisions and judge along with him, have espoused the cause of
certain of the fallen brethren who became answerable for the
charge of sacrificing…” (From Eusebius)
He is alluding
to of course to people who had suffered martyrdom and
especially to those who “lapsed” or sacrificed under the
threat of torture, and who lived to literally tell the tale.
Eusebius develops this theme and echoes a strand of
Hippolytus (170-235), about a hundred years earlier , who was
concerned with the “problem” or position of the “confessors”
as they were called believing that martyrs could be living
insofar as they had borne witness to the faith, albeit not
making the final sacrifice of death. In this regard,
Hippolytus speaks of female rage, domestic as well as public,
and the many female martyrs unsung and unrecognised,
“confessors” included. Subordination he recognises: “women
should do all things with a blameless and seemly and pure
conscience, yielding dutiful affection….” Clement had first
taken up this theme (among others) , praising women among the
martyrs. This particular Clement had been Pope from about 85
to 100, first of the Apostolic Fathers, second maybe third
successor of Peter. As Stuart Hall in his article, “Women
among the Early Martyrs” appearing in the book MARTYRS AND
MARTYROLOGIES, ed. Wood., writes, “Their subordination is
maintained , for they appear last in [Clement] but their
achievement is as noble as that of the male elect, despite
their bodily infirmity”. (p.5)
MARTYROLOGIES
Martyrologies
as we have pointed out, are not always to be relied upon, and
it is often difficult if not impossible to divine who is
married and who is not, who is “free” and who is a slave, and
so on. What however does always seem clear is that the
martyrdom of women seems to be a subordinate issue. Usually
martyrologies suggest that many female martyrs are guilty of
voluntary suicidal acts. Hall goes onto speak of several women
victims whose actions in the face of imminent death or
degradation do seem to bear out the accusation of voluntary
martyrdom. In the well-known instance of the martyrs of Lyons
there was a large group of women, some of who were thrown to
the lions, some beheaded, some languished in prison to die of
starvation. In each differing list the females are given last
. As we look at the various “histories” of martyrology, it is
evident that the prominence given to male martyrs is less
emphatic; that the role and number of female victims is
gradually more recognised. One of the “subordinating” factors
was naturally the social position of women. It is interesting
to read some words of Tertullian early on, where he seems to
be emphasising the subservient role of women martyrs. “The
very women, how pert they are! They are bold enough to teach,
to dispute, to enact exorcisms, to undertake cures – it may
even be to baptise.” (De Prescriptione, 41), However it is now
clear that female martyrs can no longer be excluded from the
Church`s leading canon.
St.Cyprian
(c.200-258) one of the early Fathers of the Church sought
(among other things) to unify the Church and to treat all
Christians as equals, including women as ministers
and martyrs. His thesis was that Christ was immanent in
martyrs, always with them, supporting them, and suffering with
them even unto death, when they would finally triumph. Early
martyrs considered themselves as participating in the Passion
, experiencing the suffering of Christ , as John Knott put it,
while others saw Christ suffering in them. Knott expresses it
very well in DISCOURSES OF MARTYRDOM, where he says “All
Christian martyrdom is in some sense an imitatio Christi
because the crucifixion and resurrection of Christ established
the pattern of winning spiritual victory through suffering and
thereby overcoming worldly strength through apparent
weakness”. (p.2). Lucy Grigg in her MAKING MARTYRS IN LATE
ANTIQUITY, continues this theme when she speaks of “vicarious
atonement” as a central element of Christian theology and a
vital constituent of martyrdom. “The transformation of the
death of Jesus from a shameful criminal execution to a
triumphal act of redemption was one of the major tasks of
first century Christianity …” (p.16).
As we have
emphasised, much martyrology material is variable in its
authenticity, St.Cyprian (above) being one author/letter
writer who is credible in the main, along with much Gospel
writing. It is known that “the Bible” does vary as regards
content – largely dependent on the particular Church who gives
it its imprimatur. Although the established “canon” contains
invaluable material regarding Christianity, some of the
“Apocryphal” texts (those which were not chosen as part of the
canon fit for general consumption!) are even more illuminating
. “Maccabees” is one such, (probably mid to end of the first
century) which apart from describing the persecutions of its
time, goes into very significant issues regarding the theology
of martyrdom. One is that there is the clear belief that dead
heroes will gain life everlasting, that the evil will be
punished, that martyrs made their land better: “purified” it
for future generations. The issue of voluntary death is also
raised, a theme echoed by among others, Tertullian whom we
have already mentioned. There is an apt paragraph in Luch
Grigg`s MAKING MARTYRS, where she writes, “Early Christians
had a range of discourses and interpretations available
regarding voluntary death and death for one`s faith. The early
Church did not create martyrdom in a hermetically sealed
religious vacuum, but through dynamic interchange” (p.11)
St. Agnes
Here we can
relate the story of St.Agnes, which will bring us back to one
of the main strands of this chapter, namely the particular
interest (by prosecutors) in the sexual aspect of female
martyrhood. Agnes represents the archetype of the virgin
martyr, one of the first commemorated martyrs of Rome and the
first to be venerated. She in fact became a cult figure and
received a glowing tribute from Prudentius. The story is that
Agnes, a beautiful 13 year old girl, is espied on her way
home, by the pagan son of the district Prefect. He is
“smitten” [in modern parlance] and declares his love for her,
asking if she will marry him. Agnes replies that she already
has a lover, Christ. The young man runs off to tell his father
, who subsequently summons her to appear before a tribunal.
Agnes refuses to sacrifice and the Prefect sentences her to be
sent to a brothel. Clearly the Prefect saw that Agnes wanted
above all to preserve her chastity, so was all the more
determined to rob her of it.. She is of course stripped naked
but on her way miracles happened, a shining light surrounds
her.;. her hair grows suddenly long and hides her body, and
her admirer is struck down by God. After this, Agnes is
condemned to the pyre but the flames go out. Eventually she
is killed by the sword. Grigg interprets the story as
illustrating explicit sexualisation.” Agnes takes Christ as
her husband and wills penetration in the form of a naked
sword.” There are several other aspects of Agnes` death
regarded as explicitly sexual. St.Ambrose (339-397) discusses
the death of St. Agnes, and adopts the theme of the defence
of female virginity, “inscribing it with the heroic drama of
martyrdom” (Grigg, 84.). Ultimately, Grigg continues, Agnes`
virginity is significant for her appeal to a far wider
audience than a virgin one . She is, Grigg continues,
consistently acclaimed dually :as both a virgin and as a
martyr.84)
IMPORTANCE OF
CHASTITY
It is clear
therefore that almost all virgin martyr legends pose some
threat to the victim`s virginity. – a threat that is related
to religious persecution. These twin themes of sexual desire
and “frustration” as Karen Winstead calls it, lead to
persecution and so to her ordeals. It is also clear to see
that as men are the persecutors, there is an implied
suggestion that all men are sadists, at least in the
eyes of the story tellers. It has to be said however that
stories or legends about particularly female martyrs did in a
sense, “appeal” to literate and illiterate alike. Therefore we
often get emphasis on sexual violence in these stories
concerning young and beautiful women surrounded by sexual
predators. Another, more spiritual reason for the interest
in female martyrdom is in the aura of paradox , as Winstead
delineates, in these deaths. “The virgin martyrs testify that
the flesh can triumph over corporeal desires, that weakness
can prevail over strength. As women who transcended their
gender to become manly , the virgin martyrs evoke the mystery
of a God made man”. (VIRGIN MARTYRS: p. 12). They became role
models, especially among women, but many male writers wrote,
maybe for other males, stories of the deaths of the (virgin)
female martyrs. It is hard not to state that many of these
legends illustrate the triumph of clerical rather than
feminine authority, ( a point made earlier), asserting the
superiority of clerical values, such as, celibacy, over lay
values such as marriage. (Ibid, 101).
“REASONS”
We can end
this section (and chapter) by looking at E.J. Balasundaram`s
book , MARTYRDOM IN THE HISTORY OF CHRISTIANITY, where he
gives his interesting version of “reasons” for martyrdom in
Antiquity. The “confession” of Jesus Christ, is named as the
first reason and by this the author means that martyrdom arose
naturally out of a type of proclamation : God made man, died
and rose again - so Christians died specifically for Christ.
The second reason arose from the aspect of refusal. Two
different cultures (Christianity and Judaism) could not exist
side by side. “What appeared to be an internal squabble within
Judaism, was found out by the Romans to have political
consequences”(op. cit., 4) Thirdly the new sect had
proselytizing ardour. Which meant that the divine right of
Emperors had to be challenged. Fourthly, martyrdom occurred
as a result of mutual incomprehension between Christians and
Romans, where the latter thought that punishment would
dissuade – but as we know the opposite was true. Later on,
with the rise of clerical power, the Edict of Milan (313)
issued by Constantine, actually helped to bring about
martyrdom, when the apparatus of State was brought to the
help of the Christian Church.
SUMMARY
We looked at
the underlying thinking behind the Roman persecution of
the early Christians at the beginning of Chapter 2 (and
concluded it with the “reasons” given for it by Balasundaram.
Several of the more notable stories of female martyrdoms were
then related, those of the early centuries AD in the reigns of
the first Emperors. Some so-called trials and “examinations”
were given , with Eusebius as our chief source. We then looked
at Tertullian`s “Address” to the potential martyrs intended to
support them in their mission. Some specific tortures (of
females) were mentioned giving an idea of the merciless
cruelty of the time (towards Christians). The reliability of
some accounts cannot always be vouchsafed; but most are
credible. Some famous “sources” are mentioned. It does seem
as if female martyrs (no doubt not all) almost rejoiced in
death more than males, as if they felt it was a glorious
act. Maybe above all, we can appreciate the (to them)
overwhelming importance of defending and preserving
virginity.
© A.B. Finlay Ph.D |
