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FEMALE MARTYRS
CHAPTER ONE
THE CONCEPT OF MARTYRDOM
A
martyr is "One who voluntarily suffers death rather than deny
his religion by words or deeds...the term may also refer to
anyone who who sacrifices his life or something of great value
for the sake of principle - a definition that will admirably
serve the purposes of this study. (The New Encyclopedia
Britannica, 2001, p.894). Thus martyrdom is the act of killing
such people. That it was so prevalent in many lands over two
millennnia is a worthy subject of study, involving
investigation of (changing) social climates, and above all of
the relations of State, Church, and people at different
periods in history. Martyrs believed in a personal salvation
in the act of suffering death, but it is important to remember
that in the eyes of the sect (mainly Christian) the act
resonated throughout society, albeit local, as an
encouragement, a statement of identity, supportive of its
ideals; the martyr became , as Anne Dillon puts it in her
CONSTRUCTION OF MARTYRS, "a powerful ideological tool" (p.
370)In fact, martyrdom became as close to Christ/God as was
possible on earth; it became an ideal. The martyr was to
others, possibly waverers, a model of Christian virtue, an
exemplar, whose grisly death served only to strengthen faith.
Allied to this were the accounts of brave last words, and the
refusal to recant in the face of torture and ultimate death
Although this study is mainly concerned with Christian
martyrdom, which began in earnest in the times of the Roman
Emperors, it is necessary to remember that religious and/or
racial persecution had a history going back several centuries
before the birth of Christ. During the period of the
Antiochene domination of the Jews, particularly in the second
century BC, there were several martyrdoms (referred to in the
Biblical Canon and in the Apocrypha, especially Maccabees) of
notable figures. The stories of Abraham in the lime kiln,
Isaac nearly sacrificed by his father, and Daniel in the
lions` den, indicate Judaic interest in the significance of
martyrdom. Maccabees, for the present purpose an important
text, relates the story of the mother and her seven sons, who
took a stand against the persecution of king Antioch. The
preferability of martyrdom to living with religious stain
is established among Jews centuries before Christ was born.
MEANING OF MARTYR
The word
“martyr” means “witness”, from Greek, that is to say one who
bears witness even unto death of his or her, conviction of
the truth of his/her belief. The ultimate witness, is a martyr
dying for faith, rather than denying it. The Apostles
themselves were “witnesses” of what they had learned from
Christ and as Peter says of the twelve, they were witnesses to
the Prince and Saviour of Israel. Witnesses of Christ in
these early times were always in deadly danger. The word
martyr in the sense of a witness came to be understood as
belonging to one who might have at any moment to deny his
faith. The present meaning began to be employed in the New
Testament, as in Acts 22:20, where the phrase “the blood of
thy martyr Stephen” is used , and in Revelation, 2:13, where
we read of “Antipas, …my faithful martyr”. Later on in
“Revelation” St.John speaks of the “souls of them that were
slain for the Word of God anf for the testimony which they
held” (6:9). In the period of Christian persecution, it is
generally recognised that the first people to die for their
faith were Stephen and James, later to be canonised by the
Catholic Church. This occurred in the first century AD, as
their deaths were closely followed by the martyrdoms of the
Apostles, Saints Peter and Paul in Rome. In the second
century, the significant figure of Ignatius (of Antioch)
wished for martyrdom as a certain means of being with God.
For him and for many, martrdom was a consummation devoutly to
be wished. Not everyone viewed this end even in the face of
torture,with admiration, especially not the Roman Emperors,
some of whom were puzzled by the Christians` fortitude, and
some of whom believed the Christians were actively provoking
authority. The latters` refusal to recant or to offer
sacrifice to the Roman State gods seemed fatuous to the
Emperors when they could so easily save their skins.
ACCOUNTS
Some of the accounts of martyr
deaths have to be taken with a pinch of salt of course but
most are genuine, drawn from reliable sources or from the
accounts related by victims themselves or from transcripts of
the “examinations”, and trials. Early “martyrologies” can be
unreliable, and embellishment over time or with hindsight is
inevitable. Even important figures such as Ignatius of Antioch
and Polycarp who were among the earliest martyrs, have
accounts of their deaths not universally accepted by scholars.
“No other act embodies as much power or acclaim” (Merriam
Webster Encyclopedia) …the spilling of blood in martyrdom.
The first Christian martyr was Christ himself. He died as a
man in order to redeem mankind and to forgive their future
sins Therefore early Christians thought to imitate their
leader by suffering (as he did) and by ultimate death. Of
course, the “climate” was conducive, as persecution of
Christians in the early centuries of Rome was rife.
Consequently, every Christian who died under Roman rule was
martyred. They were chosen for death as they were seen as a
threat to Roman authority and religion. They were true
witnesses to the power of Christianity; in Tertullian`s (2nd
century) famous words, “The martyrs` blood was the seed of the
Church” (Apologeticum) New converts were indeed created by
these public displays of death, the spilling of sacrificial
blood, endured with such fortitude. Victims believed they
were sacrificing themselves to God – and this belief sustained
them. The heart of the belief was that the act of martyrdom
granted an immediate place in heaven, near to God. Nothing
sums up more graphically the desire for martyrdom than the
words of Ignatius (1st century) in his “Epistles”: “Grant me
nothing more than that I should be poured out as a libation to
God, while there is still an altar ready…I am God`s wheat and
I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts, that I may be found
pure bread…entreat Christ for me that through these beasts I
may be found a sacrifice to God.”
Idea of “witness”
Ignatius believed himself to be a
“witness” unto death, just as the Apostles were witnesses of
Christ`s teaching and mode of living; St. Peter later alludes
to them as witnesses to the Prince and Saviour of Israel.
Their life must have been hazardous, as the possibility of
harsh retribution was always before them. In essence, the
followers of Christ generally and the Apostles in particular
might be called upon to deny their faith or suffer death.
Centuries later, of course, people who had never seen Jesus
convinced of the truth of Christianity, laid down their lives.
Here we might clarify the term “confessor” (used later in
this study) and commonly in martyrologies: a term applied to
those who were not actually put to death but endured torture
and/or imprisonment for their faith. “Martyr” in the sense of
someone who suffered death , not just torture, actually came
into its own only in the fourth century, AD. To qualify as a
martyr the victim had to be a Christian, not a heretic or
schismatic. As St.Clement of Alexandria (circa florebat, 200
AD) writes in his “Miscellanies” (Book 4) heretics “banish
themselves without being martyrs.”
“I am a Christian, “ was we
believe the standard retort of a victim to persecutors who
began the interrogation with a question designed to elicit
homage to the Emperor. Of course it was like signing a death
warrant : the retort placed Christ before the temporal ruler.
The martyrs` religion demanded universal allegiance; all other
religions were false, especially that of polytheistic Rome,
with its false gods. The martyrs indeed bore witness to truth
(as they saw it). Fundamentally it was loyalty to a cause. The
story is told of Perpetua (martyred and eventually canonised)
who laid her hand on a nearby pitcher and said “Can you say
this pitcher is not a pitcher? No more can I say I am not a
Christian.” She HAD to tell the truth even unto death. But she
did not seek it. In fact, actions which were intended to
provoke the authorities were frowned upon by Church hierarchy.
One such activity was the deliberate breaking of idols, a
“provocation” which was condemned by the notable Council of
Elvira (in 306). However several prominent Christian writers
at this time, such as Tertullian, and Eusebius, admired the
stance of Christians who it seemed sought martyrdom. Other
writers, for example, Lactantius, were not so approving.
Others took a middle way: as St. Cyprian observed, in his “De
Unitate”, speaking of those eager for persecution and death,
“he who cannot be delayed may be crowned”.
ROMAN PERSECUTION
It must be realised that in these
early centuries AD failure to worship the State gods, was
regarded as an act of treason. Denying the Supremacy of the
Emperor and official gods was seen as not only treasonable but
atheistic. In fact, laws proscribing Christianity were passed
before the second century. We read in St.Peter, 4:16 (his
First Epistle) words which must allude to the proscription:
“Yet if any man suffer as a Christian let him not be ashamed:
but let him glorify God on this behalf.” Written probably
towards the end of the first century. Here we may look at the
illuminating correspondence between the Emperor Trajan
(98-117) and his Governor or legate in the province of
Bithynia (as it then was): Pliny the Younger. The latter found
himself in some difficulties trying to manage, keep in order,
the many Christians under his jurisdiction. One aspect that
did puzzle him was the stoical attitude to privation and
suffering of the Christians arising from their new strange
belief… and he wished to know “what made them tick” – to use
modern parlance. Accordingly he had some of his (Christian)
slaves tortured to find out just that. But discovered nothing
more. He was so perplexed by it all that he decided to write
to his Emperor, Trajan, seeking guidance on three main points:
whether the age of the accused should be taken into account;
secondly, whether Christians who recanted should be pardoned
and thirdly, whether just being a Christian should be adjudged
a crime punishable by death.
Trajan replied that age did not matter and that Christians
were not to be actively hunted down by magistrates but that
any denounced person who admitted he was a Christian had to be
punished. Those who repented and sacrificed to the gods were
to be pardoned. This marked a notable year in Christian
persecution (112) as it virtually made outlaws of Christians.
The Emperor`s reply clearly indicates that he did not view
Christians as a serious threat to law and order but that as
adherents of an illegal religion they were criminals.
Christians were always likely to be denounced – in much the
same way as, centuries later, people were in fear of being
denounced as witches. Under the Emperor Severus, matters
worsened in so far as he decreed it unlawful to become a
Christian in the first place, thus (hopefully) inhibiting
growth of the new religion. The Emperor Decius, (250-253 was
determined to combat Christianity, persecuting with great
energy, and issuing an order that all Christians must offer
sacrifice to the Roman gods at least once a year. This edict
of course resulted in a type of inquisition, empowering
officialdom to punish whom they regarded as recusants.Under
this new duress, many waverers apostatized. Worse was to
follow: in 257, Valerian enacted that clergy were to offer
sacrifice…. under threat of exile, soon after to be changed to
threat of death. Confiscation of property was implied, which
affected laity (who did not sacrifice) equally and even
Christian slaves found in conflict with the law were punished.
It was not until circa 260 when Gallienus became Emperor that
this punitive edict was revoked and persecution grew less
severe. However this comparative calm was not to last, as
under Diocletian (284-305) an edict was promulgated by which
all Christians had to renounce their religion immediately.
Slavery and death were the usual penalties for refusal.
Imprisonment of clerics was instituted; freedom granted to
those who apostatized and offered sacrifice; offering
sacrifice was in fact made compulsory for all citizens
(including of course all Christians). As can be imagined,
there were many martyrs during this time of ferocious
persecution, only to end with the accession to supreme rule
of Constantine in 313, by which time far from wiping out
Christianity it had grown stronger
Persecution had begun therefore from the time of Nero in
about 64 AD , a period of some 250 years. In that time there
were many nameless martyrs and some notable ones, such as Pope
Sixtus II , St. Cyprian of Carthage, Sts. Perpetua and
Felicitas, to name but a few.. The situation the Christians
were in was rather like that of the Jews under Hitler: they
were blamed for each and every catastrophe that occurred! As
Tertullian observed in one of his works, the “Apologeticum”,
(circa 200 AD), “if the Nile fails to flood., if the sky
stands still, if famine or plague, the cry is heard,
`Christians to the lions` “. We owe good deal of our
knowledge of the plight of Christians to thinkers,
theologians, historians like Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian.
There are also what are known as the Acts (Acta) , testimonies
of sufferers themselves, and the “Passiones”, accounts done by
scribes or the persecutors at the time of trial and
examination of potential victims. Not all accounts are totally
reliable however, and of course there is little extant
testimony from pagan sources . There IS some however by those
desiring to vilify Christians. Apparently most accusers came
from these unedified ranks, simply by making a charge, and
“interesting” a prosecutor who wished to investigate the
evidence, and press charges. An “interrogation” followed,
which resulted in torture and a public death. The body was
then taken away by other Christians. The situation is nicely
summed up by Lucy Grigg: “The community now had in its
possession and history, the starting point for a victorious
martyr. According to the ideology of martyrdom the dead
Christian had won, even if the Roman authorities took a
different view” ( A BRIEF HISTORY OF MARTYRDOM, p.15). It was
therefore the symbolic imitation of their Saviour`s death
which was of importance to the Christian community – and to
the victims. Christ it was well known was the first Christian
martyr. Hence many instances of martyrdom appear to be
voluntary. As we have mentioned earlier the death of Ignatius
does not seem to be “purely” enforced, a stance corroborated
by his words in the “Epistle to the Romans” where he desires
no action that may deflect him from his goal of martyrdom.
“Voluntary” martyrdom
It
is always difficult to try to place oneself in the mindset of
people who lived long ago. It is important however to
appreciate that potential martyrs did regard themselves as in
some way part of the atonement for sins of mankind – of which
Jesus was of course the greatest exemplar. Hence the desire
(or vogue) for “voluntary” martyrdom. On some occasions it
does seem as if potential martyrs, desiring glory, actually
provoked officialdom into punitive action which occasionally
resulted in recantation, giving this particular mode a rather
bad name. If however one believed with Cyprian, that
persecution is the punishment of God for a less than ideal
Church, its teaching and discipline, then martyrdom is
acceptable as an appropriate action in helping to assuage the
sins of community. Martyrs achieved a type of heroic status,
as Lucy Grigg points out in her book, MAKING MARTYRS IN LATE
ANTIQUITY, (pp 21-23, passim). “Confessors” – a term found
frequently in writings concerning persecution, were not
regarded as true martyrs as they were not actually put to
death but may have died in prison or survived torture. They,
it seemed, were a thorn in the side of orthodox belief and its
devotees (see Cyprian, “De unitate” who vehemently attacked
those who “lapsed” , namely conformed to heathen practice for
the nonce.
RECORDS
As
we have earlier pointed out, most accounts of martyrdoms are
to be found in “Acta” – basically Court records and in “Passiones”,
relations of those who had avoided death, but suffered
imprisonment and torture, and also in the “letters” written at
the time by Christian notables: some of which are not
historical. Some however are reliable and original. All these
accounts are written from a Christian perspective – but there
are accounts written from a pagan background – which confuses
the issue somewhat! It became a little easier dealing with
persecution issues after the accession of Constantine. Now the
boot was truly on the other foot. Christian literature dwelt
lovingly on the fate of its erswhile enemies, particularly
seen in the works of Eusebius and Lactantius (of whom more
anon), Unfortunately, soon the former persecutors became
persecutors themselves. But the “cult” of Christianity
flourished. As Grigg says, the triumphal church was now State
sanctioned. “Martyrs and their texts had new roles to perform
in the brave new world – one in which bodily suffering was
firmly established as a privileged means of spiritual access”.
(MAKING MARTYRS: p. 26) Naturally before this comparative
Nirvana was reached, an incalculable number of people had been
killed, especially in the reigns of Nero, Domitian,
Diocletian and Decius, whose Edict of 250 wreaked terrible
havoc among Christians.
After an arrest, the victim was first cast into prison, where
he/she endured horrifying conditions of brutality. Later they
were interrogated by magistrates who tried to persuade them
to recant usually by torture. Those who were not put to death
were condemned to forced labour in the mines, where they were
worked to death. Not surprisingly, in later ages especially,
great veneration was shown to these unspeakably brave souls of
the first three centuries, as witness the honour shown to
relics and innumerable church and shrine frescos. Much of the
narration has passed into legend: “the world of history and
the world of spiritual significance” as Helen White puts it in
her TUDOR BOOKS OF SAINTS AND MARTYRS. (p.4). However it was
the truth of Jesus Christ`s message that buoyed up the
sufferers; they had no doubts, no uncertainties, about the
redeemer who became man., was crucified and died for all
humanity. Many of them were not peasantry, but were
comfortably off, making their “voluntary” martyrdom all the
more remarkable. The martyr is “more than an example; he is a
revelation” (White, p 6). He (the potential martyr) had
been told by Jesus that persecution, suffering and death would
be his lot; the remarkable thing is that so many accepted it –
almost cheerfully. Encouragments to “stand fast” came from
distinguished figures in early religious writings , from such
as Tertullian, Origen, and Cyprian, who promised “great
rewards prepared in heaven” (Origen, “Exhortation to
Martyrdom”, written 235. – who was himself to be killed in
258 ). Many of the early accounts of the deaths of the
persecuted are valuable and even appealing in their terrible
way, such as the accounts of the demise of Polycarp and
Perpetua (more later).The most revealing and reliable of the
early historians is Eusebius, whom we have mentioned more than
once, but because he is so important, I make no apologies for
naming him again. His “Ecclesiastical History” is
indispensable to the student of early church history.
Veneration of martyrs
The
person who had suffered death was not only venerated by the
Christian community by his manner of dying but was valued as a
posthumous miracle worker whose remains (and relics) were
thought to have almost magical powers. His/her tomb (or site
of martyrdom) was often a place of pilgrimage, marked by
displays of piety and admiration. Early Christians were proud
of their martyrs, the obscure and the notable. They (the
martyrs) were extraordinary people who must have possessed
great qualities. However, as we have mentioned, the written
accounts (martyrologies) of some of the victims were
embellished over time, giving rise to what we now call
hagiography (accounts of the life and death of martyrs and
saints). Unfortunately these hagiographies often seem to have
as their principal aim the creation of religious fervour,
rather than verisimilitude. As Bowersock put it, “Martyrdom
was conceived and devised in response to complex
social,religious and political pressures and the date and the
circumstance of its making are still the subject of lively
debate”.(MARTYRDOM AND ROME, p.5) Like the books of the
Bible, many martyr stories, if not most, have deviations from
the original meaning and wording (v.the comments above re
hagiography). Some as we have observed are almost totally
reliable. We have mentioned some of them, historians or
theologians, but the testimony of a Christian Latin poet,
Prudentius (348-410), in his major work, “Peristephanon” is of
great moment, as it recounts the persecutions and ensuing
privations of the martyrs under Roman domination. As is clear
from the writings of such scholars the severity of the
punishment meted out to the accused often was dependent upon
the status of the individual, and the cruelty and animosity of
the presiding magistrate.
SOCIAL CONTROL
Riddle, in his book, THE MARTYRS, speaks of the element of
social control which influenced greatly the behaviour of the
early martyrs, which is understood to mean the group
collective response to threatened martyrdom, fostered by
community feeling and the embryonic Christian Church. As
Riddle points out, a basic element in this control lay in the
force of the value of unity, in which the Church (or churches)
acted as social agencies. “Whether operating with a degree of
informality or in organised purpose in ritual and
authoritative discipline the social control over candidates
for martyrdom was effected by the Christian societies”
(Riddle: THE MARTYRS, p. 52) Here it is worth mentioning that
an element of masochism may have been exhibited by some
martyrs – an idea that has gained credence in recent writing
on the subject (of martyrdom). It may indeed be so, but it is
a thesis that is hard to credit in view of the extreme
tortures and manner of death of the victims. Whether there was
also an element of (sexual) exhibitionism particularly among
women is another debatable point.
Apparently it was not unusual for victims who were being
examined to have members present of the church group to which
they belonged – mainly to give them moral support .
Continuing his theme, Riddle speaks of the collective value
held by potential martyrs of such as perpetual happiness, a
sharing or “living” with the Deity, eternal damnation, and so
on, that was unquestioned. Preservation of identity (with the
Christian group) was all important. Personal immortality was
also a consummation devoutly to be wished. “They [the martyrs]
were able to meet their [fate] only because they were members
of societies which kept effective the influence of their
social bonds”: (THE MARTYRS, p. 98). Clearly, techniques of
social control were early evolved by the nascent Church;
persecution obviously played a major part in religious writing
and practice and very early dictated to some (a large?) extent
the matter of the gospels. However “just because” a person was
martyred did not itself command admiration and reverence in
the community or Church eyes especially: it was really what
you died for, what you believed in, that counted; as we have
remarked a person could die and be a heretic (in
ecclesiastical eyes): one had to be a conforming Christian
i.e. Roman Catholic true believer to receive the ultimate
accolade. The death had to be seen as “an instrument of
propaganda for convert making) - White. ibid, 21), and
continuing this theme, the martyr deaths were hopefully used
as a vehement contrast to the pomp and circumstance of the
later Church. Martyrology and with it, hagiography were born,
albeit some if it was legend
THE
“MAIN EVENTS”
Legend and “embroidery” were inevitable in accounts often
passed down orally, or written in “scrolls” or information
derived from letters. Most of what we now know is in the
“Acts” and “Passions” mentioned earlier, plus the above, and
of course the writings of Eusebius, especially his “History of
the Church”which was written contemporaneously with a period
of great persecution (circa, 300 AD). It is clear that for
many if not most Christians, there were two main “events”: as
Joyce Salisbury points out in THE BLOOD OF THE MARTYRS: their
own death ,and the Second Coming of Jesus – which might happen
at any time – when the faithful would be eternally rewarded.
After all, was not the soul immortal? The first notable
martyrs were Stephen and the Apostle James, who died like
countless numbers after them believing unshakeably in the
immortal soul and the Resurrection of the body. As a result,
as we can read in the Biblical book “Acts”, the “word of God
increased and the number of disciples multiplied greatly in
Jerusalem, and a great many priests were obedient to the
faith” (6:7) Christians of course came from the ranks of Jews,
some of whom initially persecuted the converts in their midst.
Salisbury has a telling sentence which sums up the situation
at this time (first and second century, primarily) :
“Christians were brought to execution by Romans, but according
to the texts, Jews came to cheer”. (p. 107). She develops this
theme by asking if the situation was such that Jews were
celebrating the cruel deaths of rivals (Christians) while the
latter chose to implicate Jews in the crime, and thereby
attack their rivals. Christian theology was already
anti-Semitic. In these early centuries, there are many
instances of the (RC) Church waging vendettas against Jews,
even to the extent of Pope decrees over-ruling the dictates of
Roman Emperors.
MARTYRS AND MOTHERHOOD
In
her book THE BLOOD OF THE MARTYRS Joyce Salisbury has an
illuminating chapter dealing with martyrs and motherhood.
Indeed, many of the female martyrs were mothers, as distinct
from the general conception that most (almost all) were
virgins. Christian martyrdom (of women) in the course of time
developed along new lines: “Motherhood with its emphasis on
family, on continuity, and on creating and preserving future
generations would seem to be incompatible with personal
salvation gained through martyrdom” (p.113). When Christianity
was adopted as the official religion of the Roman empire (4th
century) , martyrdom ceased to exist (officially) and
Christian mothers held families together, responsible for
bodily and spiritual health. They now knew that mortal
sacrifices were no longer needed ( as they had been to
establish the infant Church) and that the future of the
Christian community was assured. Throughout these early days,
it had in a sense been accepted by writers (and RC clergy)
that basically motherhood and martyrdom did not really go
together, and that only virgin blood was appropriate for
sacrifice. This belief certainly obtained until the 4th
century when other counsels prevailed.
Idea
of suicide
By
the 6th and 7th centuries, the Church was firmly established,
but threats to the new order prevailed in the growth of sects
and deviation from accepted dogma. Ascetics gained spiritual
power and influence, as did leaders of sects, and many of
these were venerated as all but martyrs. Just as the borders
between martyrdom and (in the eyes of many), suicide, were
blurred in the first centuries after Christ, so it was
difficult for Church authorities to distinguish between
fanaticism and scrupulous adherence to the orthodox faith.
Early writers, such as Tertullian, had urged the faithful to
martyrdom, but as time went on, the Church view was that this
was no longer the only certain hope for salvation. St
Augustine (354-439) had advocated the contrary view, however,
attacking what he saw as voluntary martyrdom. In 561, was held
the important Council of Braga (in modern Portugal) which
categorically forbade anything that smacked of suicide or
voluntary death. Much later in the Middle Ages, suicide was
prohibited, and “matters of morality became issues of law”
(Salisbury, ibid); so that much Church law found its way into
secular law.
I
should like to end this section by quoting some verses in the
“Acts” in the New Testament which epitomise both the faith of
the martyrs, and to some degree validate the earlier claim
that that which was foretold was the ultimate guiding
principle of Christians yet to be born. Paul is addressing
King Agrippa: “Having obtained the help of God, I continue to
this day , witnessing both to small and great, saying none
other things than those which the prophets and Moses did say
should come: that Christ should suffer and that he should be
the first that should rise from the dead, and should shew
light unto the people , and to the Gentiles”.
SUMMARY
We
began this chapter with an attempted definition of the word
“martyr” as applied in the Christian epoch and made some
reference to earlier martyrdoms. The meaning and significance
of religious death, followed, and the threat perceived by
Roman rule to its cohesion, leading to the view that failure
to make obesiance to the Emperor and the gods was a form of
treason. Next we looked at a definition of “confessor” and the
growth of martyrologies and hagiography. At this point it was
necessary to stress the fundamental constancy and fortitude of
the many martyrs in the face of torture unto death, related
mainly in the “Acta” and “Passiones” (and the accounts of
principally, Eusebius) . The persecutions of the Emperors,
some of whom were named. For many of these Rulers, Christians
were scapegoats, being blamed for every misfortune. Next we
considered the idea of “voluntary” martyrdom, which was for
many later Christians considered an heroic act. Even the
suspicion of suicide, among these fanatical believers was in
some cases entertained. As we saw a special Church Council had
to be called to prohibit this form of self destruction. Early
Christian writers, in the main, encouraged potential martyrs
and we looked at some of their words. Then we discussed the
concept of social control, which was mainly an attempt by the
Church and Church/religious groups to offer some kind of moral
support in the forthcoming travail and in the final hours. We
believed there were two principal “events” dominating the
lives of early Christians: their own death (often martyrdom)
and that of the Second Coming of the risen Christ. The
concepts of martyrdom and motherhood were examined, the latter
usually given short shift in ecclesiastical annals, in the
belief current at that time of virginal blood being mainly (or
only) most suitable for self- sacrifice. When the main fury of
persecution was over, the Church had new problems, some of
which were dissenting sects, breakaway groups and the
emergence of charismatic “teachers” or spiritual leaders.
Introduction to chapter two
A little of the history of
martyrdom has been given above, but really the whole picture
has to be seen against the background of Christianity`s
founder, Jesus Christ, his teachings and example, who died a
martyr`s death. This first chapter attempted to consider the
concept of martyrdom and the motivation of those willing to
die for their cause, the new religion. In the next chapter we
will consider in some detail mainly the religious persecution
of the early years, the rationale behind it, resulting in mass
murder. Basically Roman Emperors delegated power to accuse,
interrogate, torture, imprison and condemn to death, to their
legates and jurors, often petty officials who relished
“examining” victims. Although most accounts of martyrdom
appear to be of men, this slant is one-sided, as there were
many female victims, given little publicity by the later
Church. It has to be said that prurience and much violence of
a sexual nature played a part in the martyrdom of women
throughout the history of religious persecution. Notable
individuals who suffered death, and the (social) groups to
which they belonged are considered. Some accounts are given.
It seems appropriate here to make some mention of the words
of contemporary writers on the subject of martyrdom.
© A.B. Finlay Ph.D |
